Petroleum Vapor Intrusion
On this page:
- Introduction
- Fate & Transport
- Sampling & Characterization
- Models & Modeling
- Mitigation & Remediation
- Guidance
Introduction
Overview of Petroleum Vapor Intrusion (PVI)
Vapor intrusion occurs when vapor-phase contaminants migrate from subsurface sources into buildings. One type of vapor intrusion is PVI, in which vapors from petroleum hydrocarbons such as gasoline, diesel, or jet fuel enter a building. The intrusion of contaminant vapors into indoor spaces is of concern due to potential threats to safety (e.g., explosive concentrations of petroleum vapors or methane) and possible adverse health effects from inhalation exposure to toxic chemicals.
PVI Guidance
- Technical Guide for Addressing Petroleum Vapor Intrusion at Leaking Underground Storage Tank Sites
- Federal Docket (EPA-HQ-RCRA-2002-0033)
This docket contains documents and public comments pertaining to EPA's draft vapor intrusion policy guidance.
PVI Database
In support of its general guidance development effort for the petroleum vapor intrusion exposure pathway, EPA compiled an empirical database of measurements of subsurface media (soil gas, soil, and groundwater) and supporting data from 74 sites, including 69 sites in 10 states, 4 sites in Canada, and 1 site in Australia.
PVIScreen
EPA developed a model to assess the potential for petroleum vapor intrusion into nearby building from leaking UST sites. Modeling results may help regulators determine when sites can be screened out form further investigation.
- March 2018 90-minute webinar about EPA's PVIScreen model. Dr. James Weaver of EPA-ORD gives an overview of the model and demonstrates how to use it.
PVI Technical Supporting Documents
- 3-D Modeling of Aerobic Biodegradation of Petroleum Vapors: Effect of Building Area Size on Oxygen Concentration Below the Slab
This technical report presents results of 3-D finite difference vapor transport modeling simulations designed to systematically assess the development of an oxygen shadow beneath a building. - An Approach for Developing Site-Specific Lateral and Vertical Inclusion Zones within which Structures Should be Evaluated for Petroleum Vapor Intrusion due to Releases of Motor Fuel from Underground Storage Tanks
This ORD Issue Paper presents a graphical, data-driven approach to screen buildings for vulnerability to PVI. - Petroleum Hydrocarbons And Chlorinated Solvents Differ In Their Potential For Vapor Intrusion
This document describes how petroleum and chlorinated hydrocarbons behave differently in the subsurface and how these differences can influence whether there is a potential for vapor intrusion to occur.
Additional Vapor Intrusion Resources
- Vapor Intrusion website
This website provides basic information regarding non-petroleum vapor intrusion (e.g., vapor intrusion from chlorinated solvents) including technical and policy documents to support environmental investigations, and highlights of recent and upcoming activities related to vapor intrusion. - Vapor Intrusion Issue Area on EPA’s CLU-IN
CLU-IN issue areas bundle available information associated with specific topics. These issue areas are updated with information from federal cleanup programs, state sources, universities, nonprofit organizations, peer-reviewed publications, and public-private partnerships.
Generation, Transport, and Fate of Vapors in the Subsurface
The resources below provide information on the generation, transport, and fate of petroleum vapors in the subsurface.
The following links exit the site
- Brenner, David. 2012. Results of a Long-Term Study of Vapor Intrusion at Four Large Buildings at the NASA Ames Research Center. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, Vol 60, 2010 - Issue 6.
- A study of vapor intrusion (both petroleum and chlorinated) into large industrial buildings. Benzene in indoor air was found to originate from outdoor air, rather than from vapor intrusion from the subsurface.
- Bruce, Lyle, Arati Kolhatkar, and James Cuthbertson. 2010. Comparison of BTEX Attenuation Rates Under Anaerobic Conditions (PDF). International Journal of Soil, Sediment and Water 3(2). (17 pp, 13.1 MB)
Describes the rates of natural attenuation of BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene) compounds at four sites in the Midwest. Toluene attenuated at the highest rate, followed by benzene, xylene, and ethylbenzene. - Bruce, Lyle, Arati Kolhatkar, Angela Strain, John Grams, Wayne Hutchinson, and Calvin Alexander. 2007. Characterizing Anaerobic Degradation of Hydrocarbons in a Fractured Karst Aquifer in Central Missouri. Presented at the Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Organic Chemicals in Ground Water: Prevention, Detection, and Remediation Conference in Houston, Texas.
Provides evidence that petroleum contamination in a fractured karst aquifer at a site in central Missouri is naturally degrading anaerobically. - DeHate, Robin, Giffe Johnson, and Raymond Harbison. 2011. Risk Characterization of Vapor Intrusion in Former Manufactured Gas Plant Sites. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 59:353-359.
Evaluated the cancer and non-cancer risks from BTEX vapor intrusion at 36 commercial and residential properties on or near three former manufactured gas plants. No increased public health risks were identified. - DeVaull, George, Robbie Ettinger, and John Gustafson. 2002. Chemical Vapor Intrusion from Soil or Groundwater to Indoor Air: Significance of Unsaturated Zone Biodegradation of Aromatic Hydrocarbons. Soil and Sediment Contamination 11:625-641.
Discusses aerobic biodegradation of aromatic hydrocarbons, and its impact on PVI. - DeVaull, George. 2007. Indoor Vapor Intrusion with Oxygen-Limited Biodegradation for a Subsurface Gasoline Source. Environmental Science and Technology 41:3241-3248.
Presents a mathematical model that simulates PVI and includes aerobic biodegradation. - Fischer, Marc, Abra Bentley, Kristie Dunkin, Alfred Hodgson, William Nazaroff, Richard Sextro, and Joan Daisey. 1996. Factors Affecting Indoor Air Concentrations of Volatile Organic Compounds at a Site of Subsurface Gasoline Contamination. Environmental Science and Technology 30:2948-2957.
This field study of a PVI site found that indoor air concentrations were about six orders of magnitude lower than soil gas concentrations, due to biodegradation, a partial physical barrier, and building ventilation. - Hawthorne, Steven, Nick Azzolina, and John Finn. 2008. Tracing Contributions of Benzene from Outdoor to Indoor Air. Environmental Forensics 9:96-106.
Evaluated data from three sites with subsurface benzene contamination. Comparison of benzene: tracer ratios from indoor air, outdoor air, and soil gas samples demonstrated that indoor air benzene was primarily contributed by outdoor air and not by soil-vapor intrusion. - Kristensen, Andreas H., Kaj Henriksen, Lars Mortensen, Kate M. Scow, and Per Moldrup. 2010. Soil Physical Constraints on Intrinsic Biodegradation of Petroleum Vapors in a Layered Subsurface. Vadose Zone Journal 9:137-147.
- Used laboratory and field tests to evaluate the biodegradation of petroleum vapors in different types of soil, and under varying moisture levels.
- Kristensen, Andreas, Tjalfe Poulsen, Lars Mortensen, and Per Moldrup. 2010. Variability of Soil Potential for Biodegradation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in a Heterogeneous Subsurface. Journal of Hazardous Materials 179:573-580.
Analyzed soil samples from an area contaminated with petroleum in order to study the spatial variability of factors affecting natural attenuation of hydrocarbons in the unsaturated zone. - Lahvis, Matthew, Arthur Baehr, and Ronald Baker. 1999. Quantification of Aerobic Biodegradation and Volatilization Rates of Gasoline Hydrocarbons near the Water Table under Natural Attenuation Conditions. Water Resources Research 35:753-765.
A gasoline spill site in South Carolina was studied to evaluate the effectiveness of aerobic biodegradation and volatilization as a combined natural attenuation pathway. - Lundegard, Paul, Paul Johnson, and Paul Dahlen. 2008. Oxygen Transport from the Atmosphere to Soil Gas Beneath a Slab-on-Grade Foundation Overlying Petroleum-Impacted Soil. Environmental Science and Technology 42:5534-5540.
- Quantified the rate of oxygen transport from the atmosphere to the soil gas beneath a building slab.
- Mills, William, Sally Liu, Mark Rigby, and David Brenner. July 2007. Time-Variable Simulation of Soil Vapor Intrusion into a Building with a Combined Crawl Space and Basement. Environmental Science and Technology 41:4993-5001.
- Presents a time-variable one-dimensional model to predict indoor vapor concentrations in a dwelling with a combined basement and crawl space. The model was applied to a building located above groundwater contaminated with chlorinated volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
- Olson, David and Richard Corsi. 2002. Fate and Transport of Contaminants in Indoor Air. Journal of Soil and Sediment Contamination 11:583-601.
Overview of chemical fate in the indoor environment, taking into account vapor intrusion and several other sources of indoor contamination. - Pasteris, Gabriele, David Werner, Karin Kaufmann, and Patrick Hohener. 2002. Vapor Phase Transport and Biodegradation of Volatile Fuel Compounds in the Unsaturated Zone: A Large-Scale Lysimeter Experiment. Environmental Science and Technology 36:30-39.
A field experiment to observe the fate and transport of a fuel spill containing 5 percent methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE). - Popovicova, Jarmila and Mark Brusseau. 1998. Contaminant Mass Transfer during Gas-Phase Transport in Unsaturated Porous Media. Water Resources Research 34:83-92.
Study to investigate the relative effects of physical heterogeneity, gas-liquid mass transfer, and rate-limited sorption on the gas-phase transport of contaminants (methane, trichlorethylene, and benzene) in idealized unsaturated homogeneous and heterogeneous porous media. - Rivetta, Michael, Gary Wealthall, Rachel Dearden, and Todd McAlary. April 2011. Review of Unsaturated-Zone Transport and Attenuation of Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Plumes Leached from Shallow Source Zones. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 123:130-156.
Literature review of unsaturated-zone transport and attenuation of petroleum and chlorinated VOC plumes. - Tillman, Fred and James Weaver. June 2007. Temporal Moisture Content Variability Beneath and External to a Building and the Potential Effects on Vapor Intrusion Risk Assessment. Science of the Total Environment 379:1-15.
- Investigated the movement of soil moisture next to and beneath a building at a contaminated field site. Results showed that vapor intrusion risk assessments based on moisture content determined from soil cores taken external to a building structure may moderately-to-severely underestimate the vapor intrusion risk from beneath the structure.
- Uhler, Allen, Kevin McCarthy, Stephen Emsbo-Mattingly, Scott Stout, and Gregory Douglas. 2010. Predicting Chemical Fingerprints of Vadose Zone Soil Gas and Indoor Air from Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid Composition. Environmental Forensics 11:342-354.
Demonstrates use of chemical fingerprints of predicted vapor phase hydrocarbons as compositional benchmarks for reconciling sources of soil gas and indoor air-borne hydrocarbons.
Sampling Methods and Analyses and Site Characterization
The resources below provide information about sampling methods and analyses as well as site characterization.
- Indoor air sampling methods and analysis
- Soil gas sample collection and sample analysis methods
- Site characterization and conceptual site model development
The following links exit the site
Indoor Air Sampling Methods and Analysis
- Montana Department of Environmental Quality (MT DEQ). 2012. Typical Indoor Air Concentrations of Volatile Organic Compounds in Non-Smoking Montana Residences not Impacted by Vapor Intrusion: A Montana Indoor Air Quality Investigation.
Soil Gas Sample Collection and Sample Analysis Methods
The resources below provide information about soil gas sample collection and sample analysis methods, focusing on sites where PVI may be a concern.
- Hers, Ian, Loretta Li, and S. Hannam. Evaluation of Soil Gas Sampling and Analysis Techniques At a Former Petrochemical Plant Site. Environmental Technology 25:847-860.
Presents an evaluation designed to provide information on reliability and selection of appropriate methods for soil gas sampling and analysis. The evaluation was based on a literature review of data and methods, and experiments completed as part of the research study. - McAlary, Todd, Paul Nicholson, Lee Yik, David Bertrand, and Gordon Thrupp. 2010. High Purge Volume Sampling - A New Paradigm for Subslab Soil Gas Monitoring. Groundwater Monitoring and Remediation 30:73-85.
- Presents a new method of monitoring that is based on a concept of integrating samples over a large volume of soil gas extracted from beneath the floor slab of a building to provide a spatially averaged subslab concentration.
- McHugh, Thomas, Robin Davis, George DeVaull, Harley Hopkins, John Menatti, and Tom Peargin. 2010. Evaluation of Vapor Attenuation at Petroleum Hydrocarbon Sites: Considerations for Site Screening and Investigation. Soil and Sediment Contamination 19:725-745.
A framework for the evaluation of vapor intrusion at petroleum hydrocarbon sites that involves simple screening for preferential pathways at sites with sufficient vertical separation between the building and the source, but a more intensive investigation at sites with petroleum sources in closer proximity to the building.
Site Characterization and Conceptual Site Model Development
The resources below provide information about site characterization, for sites where PVI may be a concern.
- Hers, Ian, Reidar Zapf-Gilje, Loretta Li, and Jim Atwater. 2001. The Use of Indoor Air Measurements to Evaluate Intrusion of Subsurface VOC Vapors into Buildings (PDF). Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association 51(9):1318-1331. (15 pp, 548 K)
Discusses how studies that use indoor air testing to assess subsurface risks from vapor intrusion could be improved to better predict rates of intrusion. - McHugh, Thomas, John Connor, and Farrukh Ahmad. March 2004. An Empirical Analysis of the Groundwater-to-Indoor-Air Exposure Pathway: The Role of Background Concentrations in Indoor Air (PDF). Environmental Forensics 5:33-44. (12 pp, 561 K)
- An analysis of paired groundwater and indoor air measurements of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to detect evidence of indoor air impacts from dissolved petroleum hydrocarbons or chlorinated solvents in underlying groundwater, estimate the true attenuation factor for volatilization from groundwater to indoor air, and assess the utility of popular groundwater to indoor air transport models for evaluating this exposure pathway.
- McHugh, Thomas, Robin Davis, George DeVaull, Harley Hopkins, John Menatti, and Tom Peargin. 2010. Evaluation of Vapor Attenuation at Petroleum Hydrocarbon Sites: Considerations for Site Screening and Investigation. Soil and Sediment Contamination 19:725-745.
A framework for the evaluation of vapor intrusion at petroleum hydrocarbon sites that involves simple screening for preferential pathways at sites with sufficient vertical separation between the building and the source, but a more intensive investigation at sites with petroleum sources in closer proximity to the building. - Patterson, Bradley and Greg Davis. 2009. Quantification of Vapor Intrusion Pathways into a Slab-on-Ground Building under Varying Environmental Conditions. Environmental Science and Technology 43:650-656.
Discusses the investigation and quantification of potential hydrocarbon vapor intrusion pathways into a building through a concrete slab-on-ground under a variety of environmental conditions. - Yao, Yijun, Kelly Pennell, and Eric Suuberg. 2010. Vapor Intrusion in Urban Settings: Effect of Foundation Features and Source Location. Urban Environmental Pollution 4:245-250.
- Uses a three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics model to investigate how the presence of impervious surfaces affects vapor intrusion rates.
Models and Modeling
The resources below provide information about conceptual site model development, for sites where PVI may be a concern.
The following links exit the site
- American Petroleum Institute (API). 2009. Simulating the Effect of Aerobic Biodegradation on Soil Vapor Intrusion into Buildings – Evaluation of Low Strength Sources Associated with Dissolved Gasoline Plumes. Publication No. 4775; American Petroleum Institute: Washington, D.C.
- Bekele, D.N., R. Naidu, M. Bowman, and S. Chadalavada. 2013. Vapor Intrusion Models for Petroleum and Chlorinated Volatile Organic Compounds: Opportunities for Future Improvements. Vadose Zone Journal 12(2).
- Davis, G.B., M.G. Trefry, and B.M. Patterson. 2009. Petroleum Vapour Model Comparison, CRC for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment, Technical Report Number 9, 24p.
- DeVaull, George. 2007. Indoor Vapor Intrusion with Oxygen-Limited Biodegradation for a Subsurface Gasoline Source. Environmental Science and Technology 41:3241-3248.
Presents a mathematical model that simulates PVI and includes aerobic biodegradation. - EPA. 2005. Uncertainty and the Johnson-Ettinger Model for Vapor Intrusion Calculations (EPA/600/R-05/110) (PDF)(43 pp, 645 K)
- Hers, Ian, Reidar Zapf-Gilje, Dyfed Evans, and Loretta Li. 2002. Comparison, Validation, and Use of Models for Predicting Indoor Air Quality from Soil and Groundwater Contamination. Soil and Sediment Contamination 11:491-527.
Evaluates different soil vapor transport to indoor air screening models through a review of model characteristics and sensitivity, and through comparisons to measured conditions at field sites. - Johnson, Paul, and Robert Ettinger. 1991. Heuristic Model for Predicting the Intrusion Rate of Contaminant Vapors into Buildings. Environmental Science and Technology 25:1445-1452. Presents a heuristic model of screening level calculations for predicting vapor intrusion rates and includes sample calculations for a range of parameter values to illustrate use of the model and the relative contributions of individual transport mechanisms.
- Lahvis, M. 2011. Vapour Transport from Soil and Groundwater to Indoor Air: Analytical Modeling Approach in Vapor Emissions to Outdoor Air and Enclosed Spaces for Human Health Risk Assessment: Site Characterization, Monitoring, and Modeling. S. Saponaro, E. Sezenna, L. Bonomo, Eds., Nova Science Publishers, Inc., New York. pp. 91-112.
- Ma, J., H. Luo, G.E. DeVaull, W.G. Rixey, and P.J.J. Alvarez. 2014. Numerical Model Investigation for Potential Methane Explosion and Benzene Vapor Intrusion Associated with High-Ethanol Blend Releases. Environmental Science & Technology 48(1):474-481.
- Mills, W.B., S. Liu, M.C. Rigby, and D. Brenner. 2007. Time-Variable Simulation of Soil Vapor Intrusion into a Building with a Combined Crawl Space and Basement. Environmental Science and Technology 41(14):4993-5001.
- Olson, David and Richard Corsi. 2001. Characterizing Exposure to Chemicals from Soil Vapor Intrusion Using a Two-Compartment Model. Atmospheric Environment 35:4201-4209.
Discusses the use of a two compartment model (one for the basement and one for the remainder of the house) to characterize subsurface transport on the indoor environment. A field study was completed to quantify parameters associated with the two compartment model, such as soil gas intrusion rates and basement to ground floor air exchange rates. Results indicate that exposures are highly dependent on gas intrusion rates, basement ventilation rate, and fraction of time spent in the basement. - Park, H. 1999. A Method For Assessing Soil Vapor Intrusion From Petroleum Release Sites: Multi-Phase/Multi-Fraction Partitioning (PDF). Global Nest 1:195-204. (10 pp, 268 K)
A model and spreadsheet based numeric approximation for computing risk-based soil cleanup levels for the indoor air exposure pathway at petroleum-contaminated sites. - Ririe, G.T., R.E. Sweeney, S.J. Daugherty, and P.M. Peuron. 1998. A Vapor Transport Model that is Consistent with Field and Laboratory Data, in, Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Organic Chemicals in Groundwater: Prevention, Detection, and Remediation Conference, Groundwater Association Publishing, Houston, Texas, pp.299-308.
- Ririe, G.T., R.E. Sweeney, and S.J. Daugherty. 2002. A Comparison of Hydrocarbon Vapor Attenuation in the Field with Predictions from Vapor Diffusion Models. Soil and Sediment Contamination 11(4):529-544.
- Sanders, Paul and Nazmi Talimcioglu. 1997. Soil-to-Indoor Air Exposure Models for Volatile Organic Compounds: The Effect of Soil Moisture. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 16:2597-2604.
Discusses two finite-source models used to study the effect of soil moisture on indoor air concentrations and inhaled doses. Indoor air concentrations and inhaled doses for the model contaminant varied by up to seven orders of magnitude, depending on the soil moisture conditions and whether contaminant degradation was considered. - Tillman, Fred and James Weaver. 2007. Parameter Sets for Upper and Lower Bounds on Soil-to-Indoor-Air Contaminant Attenuation Predicted by the Johnson and Ettinger Vapor Intrusion Model. Atmospheric Environment 41:5797-5806.
Used EPA recommended ranges of parameter values for nine soil-type, source depth combinations to identify input parameter sets that correspond to best and worst case results of the Johnson and Ettinger model. The results established the existence of generic best and worst case parameter sets for maximum and minimum exposure for all soil types and depths investigated. - Tillman, Fred and James Weaver. July 2006. Uncertainty from Synergistic Effects of Multiple Parameters in the Johnson and Ettinger (1991) Vapor Intrusion Model. Atmospheric Environment 40:4098-4112.
Presents results of multiple parameter uncertainty analyses using the Johnson and Ettinger model to evaluate risk to humans from vapor intrusion. - Turczynowicz, L. and N. I. Robinson. 2007. Exposure Assessment Modeling for Volatiles -- Towards an Australian Indoor Vapor Intrusion Model. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part A 70(19):1619-1634.
- Yao, Yijun, Rui Shen, Kelly Pennell, and Eric Suuberg. March 2011. Comparison of the Johnson-Ettinger Vapor Intrusion Screening Model Predictions with Full Three-Dimensional Model Results. Environmental Science and Technology 45:2227-2235.
Compares predictions from a three-dimensional model of vapor intrusion, based upon finite element calculations of homogeneous soil scenarios, with the results of the Johnson-Ettinger model. Results suggest that there are conditions under which the model predictions might be reasonable but that there are also others in which the predictions are low as well as high.
Mitigation and Remediation of PVI
The resources below provide information about the mitigation and remediation of petroleum vapor intrusion (PVI).
The following links exit the site
- Chen, Wenhao, Jianshun Zhang, and Zhibin Zhang. 2005. Performance of Air Cleaners for Removing Multiple Volatile Organic Compounds in Indoor Air. ASHRAE Transactions 111:1101–1114.
Evaluates 15 air cleaners' performance in terms of single-pass efficiency and the clean air delivery rate in a mixture of 17 volatile organic compounds (VOCs). - EPA. October 2008. Engineering Issue: Indoor Air Vapor Intrusion Mitigation Approaches (PDF). (49 pp, 594 K) EPA/600/R-08-15.
This paper is focused on the mitigation of vapor intrusion to prevent human exposure to anthropogenic soil and ground water contaminants. This document is designed to provide sufficient information to allow the reader to understand the range of mitigation technologies available. The document also provides information on selecting appropriate technologies in consultation with qualified engineering and risk management professionals.
Guidance
EPA Guidance
This section provides PVI-related guidance documents issued by EPA.
- DiGiulio, Dominic, Cynthia Paul, Brad Scoggins, Raphael Cody, Richard Willey, Scott Clifford, Ronald Mosley, Annette Lee, Kaneen Christensen, and Ravi Costa. 2006. Comparison of Geoprobe PRT and AMS GVP Soil-Gas Sampling Systems with Dedicated Vapor Probes in Sandy Soils at the Raymark Superfund Site. EPA/600/R-06/111.
Describes a study conducted near the Raymark Superfund Site in Stratford, Connecticut, that compares results of soil-gas sampling using dedicated vapor probes, a truck mounted direct-push technique, and a hand-held rotary hammer technique. - DiGiulio, Dominic, Cynthia Paul, Raphael Cody, Richard Willey, Scott Clifford, Peter Kahn, Ronald Mosley, Annette Lee, and Kaneen Christensen. 2006. Assessment of Vapor Intrusion in Homes Near the Raymark Superfund Site Using Basement and Sub-Slab Air Samples. EPA/600/R-05/147.
Describes the results of an investigation conducted to assist EPA’s New England Regional Office in evaluating vapor intrusion at 15 homes and one commercial building near the Raymark Superfund Site in Stratford, Connecticut. - EPA. 2009. Johnson and Ettinger (1991) Model for Subsurface Vapor Intrusion into Buildings.
Provides access to several models for estimating indoor air concentrations and associated health risks from subsurface vapor intrusion into buildings. - EPA. January 1999. Compendium of Methods for the Determination of Toxic Organic Compounds in Ambient Air, Second Edition, Compendium Method TO-14A, Determination of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) in Ambient Air Using Specially Prepared Canisters with Subsequent Analysis by Gas Chromatography (PDF). EPA/625/R-96/010b. (90 pp, 1.0 MB)
- EPA. January 1999. Compendium of Methods for the Determination of Toxic Organic Compounds in Ambient Air, Second Edition, Compendium Method TO-15: Determination Of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) In Air Collected In Specially-Prepared Canisters And Analyzed By Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) (PDF). EPA/625/R-96/010b. (67 pp, 882 K)
- EPA. January 1999. Compendium of Methods for the Determination of Toxic Organic Compounds in Ambient Air, Second Edition, Compendium Method TO-17: Determination of Volatile Organic Compounds in Ambient Air Using Active Sampling Onto Sorbent Tubes (PDF). EPA/625/R-96/010b. (53 pp, 309 K)
- EPA. March 2008. Indoor Air Vapor Intrusion Database.
- EPA. November 2002. OSWER Draft Guidance for Evaluating the Vapor Intrusion to Indoor Air Pathway from Groundwater and Soils (Subsurface Vapor Intrusion Guidance) (PDF). EPA 530-D-02-004. (178 pp, 1.9 MB)
- EPA. July 2007. Final Project Report for the Development of an Active Soil Gas Sampling Method. EPA/600/R-07/076.
Describes investigations designed to assess the effect of purge rate, purge volume, and sample volume on soil gas results and to develop technically defensible values or ranges of values for these parameters that can be incorporated into active soil gas sampling guidance. - EPA. October 2008. Indoor Air Vapor Intrusion Mitigation Approaches (PDF). EPA/600/R-08-115. (49 pp, 594 K)
Focuses on the mitigation of vapor intrusion to prevent human exposure to anthropogenic soil and groundwater contaminants. - EPA Region 5, Superfund Division. October 2010. Vapor Intrusion Guidebook .
This Vapor Intrusion (VI) Guidebook is intended to assist On-Scene Coordinators, Remedial Project Managers, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Project Managers, and Site Assessment Managers as they evaluate and manage VI issues under Superfund Removal, Remedial, and Site Assessment programs and promote consistency among the approaches used at different VI sites in Region 5. - Weaver, James and Fred Tillman. 2005. Uncertainty and the Johnson-Ettinger Model for Vapor Intrusion Calculations . EPA/600/R-05/110.
An uncertainty analysis performed on the Johnson-Ettinger model that accounts for synergistic effects among variable model parameters.
State Guidance
This section provides PVI-related guidance documents issued by state agencies.
The following links exit the site
Alaska
- Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation. January 2017. Vapor Intrusion Guidance for Contaminated Sites (PDF). (92 pp, 1.1 MB)
California
- California State Water Resources Control Board. September 2012. Leaking Underground Fuel Tank Guidance Manual (PDF). (366 pp, 11.0 MB)
Colorado
- Colorado Department of Labor and Employment. December 2007. Petroleum Hydrocarbon Vapor Intrusion.
Idaho
- Idaho Department of Environmental Quality 2018. Idaho Risk Evaluation Manual for Petroleum Releases
Indiana
- Indiana Department of Environmental Management. Vapor Intrusion: Migration of Chemical Vapors in the Soil to Indoor Air.
Kansas
- Kansas Department of Health and Environment. Vapor Intrusion.
Maine
- Maine Department of Environmental Protection, Spills and Site Cleanup. Remediation Program Guidance for the Investigation and Clean Up at Hazardous Substance Sites in Main. Section 4(e) Vapor Intrusion Guidance.
Maryland
- Maryland Department of the Environment, Land Restoration Program. Facts About Vapor Intrusion (PDF). (4 pp, 168 K)
Massachusetts
- Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection. December 2016. Vapor Intrusion Guidance: Site Assessment, Mitigation, and Closure (PDF). WSC-16-435. (160 pp, 1.6 MB)
- Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection. April 2002. Indoor Air Sampling and Evaluation Guide (PDF). WSC-02-430(157 pp, 821 K)
- Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection. December 1995. Guidelines for the Design, Installation, and Operation of Sub-Slab Depressurization Systems (PDF). Northeast Regional Office. (16 pp, 212 K)
- Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection. October 2002. Characterizing Risks Posed by Petroleum Contaminated Sites: Implementation of the MADEP VPH/EPH Approach (PDF). WSC-02-411(68 pp, 461 K)
Michigan
- Michigan Department of Environmental Quality. October 2016. Indoor Air Designated Methods and Target Detection Limits (PDF). (7 pp, 88 K)
Minnesota
- Minnesota Pollution Control Agency Vapor Intrusion Guidance.
Nebraska
- Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality. May 2009. Risk-Based Corrective Action (RBCA) at Petroleum Release Sites: Tier 1/Tier 2 Assessments and Reports (PDF). (159 pp, 1.5 MB)
New Jersey
- New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. Vapor Intrusion Pathway.
- New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. 2005. Field Sampling Procedures Manual.
New York
- New York State Department of Health. October 2006. Guidance for Evaluating Soil Vapor Intrusion in the State of New York.
- New York State Department of Health. February 2005. Indoor Air Sampling and Analysis Guidance.
North Carolina
- North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality. March 2018. Vapor Intrusion Guidance
Ohio
- Ohio Environmental Protection Agency. May 2010. Sample Collection and Evaluation of Vapor Intrusion to Indoor Air: For Remedial Response and Voluntary Action Programs: Guidance Document
- Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Drinking and Groundwaters. August 2008. Soil Gas Monitoring for Site Characterization: Technical Guidance Manual for Groundwater Investigations. Chapter 11
Oregon
- Oregon Department of Environmental Quality. March 2004. Screening Model for Volatilization from Soil to Indoor Air at Heating Oil Tank Sites.
Utah
- Utah Department of Environmental Quality. March 2005. Guideline for Utah's Corrective Action Process for Leaking Underground Storage Tank Sites (PDF). (212 pp, 2.3 MB)
The following link provides access to state vapor intrusion guidance documents. They are organized geographically through a clickable map of the U.S., in alphabetical order, or arranged by topic:
- Vapor Intrusion Guidance Documents by State. EnviroGroup Limited: A GeoSyntec Company.
Other Guidance
This section provides PVI-related guidance documents issued by federal agencies and other groups.
The following links exit the site
- American Petroleum Institute. April 2009. Simulating the Effect of Aerobic Biodegradation on Soil Vapor Intrusion into Buildings - Evaluation of Low Strength Sources Associated with Dissolved Gasoline Plumes. API Publication 4775.
Presents simulations using the three-dimensional mathematical model developed by Abreu and Johnson (2006, 2005) for a range of scenarios to develop relationships between site-specific conditions and the vapor intrusion attenuation factor. - American Petroleum Institute. 2010. BioVapor Indoor Vapor Intrusion Model.
A user-friendly spreadsheet implementation of a steady-state one-dimensional indoor vapor intrusion model with oxygen limited biodegradation. - Association of State and Territorial Solid Waste Management Officials (ASTSWMO). January 2010. Petroleum Vapor Intrusion Status Report.
Summarizes background information on PVI, identifies problems and needs, and describes possible solutions and a future course of action. - Department of Defense. January 2009. DoD Vapor Intrusion Handbook (PDF). (172 pp, 1.5 MB)
- Johnson, Paul, Mariush Kemblowski, and Richard Johnson. December 1998. Assessing the Significance of Subsurface Contaminant Vapor Migration to Enclosed Spaces: Site-Specific Alternative to Generic Estimates. American Petroleum Institute Publication Number 4674.
Presents several options for assessing the vapor intrusion pathway on a site-specific basis. Also, a vision for a simpler site-specific assessment approach is presented. - Johnson, Paul, R.A. Ettinger, J. Kurtz, R. Bryan, and J.E. Kester. 2002. Migration of Soil Gas Vapors to Indoor Air: Determining Vapor Attenuation Factors Using a Screening-Level Model and Field Data from the CDOT-MTL Denver, Colorado Site. American Petroleum Institute Soil and Groundwater Research Bulletin Number 16.
- Roggemans, Sophie, Cristin Bruce, Paul Johnson, and Richard Johnson. December 2001. Vadose Zone Natural Attenuation of Hydrocarbon Vapors: An Empirical Assessment of Soil Gas Vertical Profile Data. American Petroleum Institute Soil and Groundwater Research Bulletin Number 15.
- Wilson, Lesley, Paul Johnson, and James Rocco. November 2005. Assessing Vapor Intrusion: A Practical Strategy for Assessing the Subsurface Vapor-to-Indoor Air Migration Pathway at Petroleum Hydrocarbon Sites. API Publication 4741.
- Focuses on the collection of soil gas samples for assessing the significance of the subsurface vapor to indoor air exposure pathway.